APPENDIX 3 - THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES IN THE WENTWORTH SHIRE (KNOWN AND PREDICTED)

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1. Text (150K)
2. Map 1 (Gol Gol - approx 350K)
3. Map 2 (Buronga - approx 350K)
4. Map 3 (Boeill Ck - approx 350K)
5. Map 4 (Coomealla - approx 350K)
6. Map 5 (Curlwaa - approx 350K)
7. Map 6 (Wentworth - approx 350K)

SITE DOCUMENTATION

This section presents known information on archaeological sites and their distribution in Wentworth Shire. There are four parts to it. The first is a description of major landforms and what general archaeological deposits are found in them. The second describes regions of the Shire with known archaeological sites. The third part is a description of different types of archaeological remains and their common distributions. The fourth is a summary which focuses on the northern margin of the River Murray in the eastern part of the shire, since this is the area slated for development. An appendix lists all those sites in the National Parks and Wildlife Service register. This list is by no means a complete record of all sites in the area. It is mainly the result of specific research projects and contract studies.

DOCUMENTATION OF SITES IN THE SHIRE BY LANDFORM AND ENVIRONMENTAL REGION

Sand Plain

Much of the Shire north of the Murray and away from the Darling is made up of dunefields. Most sites here are "open campsites". These are generally stone artefact scatters (see part 3 below). Little site recording has been done in these regions, although numerous surveys demonstrate that site distribution is sparse, and each particular artefact scatter is of little overall significance. Bone and shell is extremely rare here. It may be that accumulation of overlying soils is not common or that soil conditions lead to quick destruction of organic remains.

Rivers

River systems crosscut the dunefields, with three general forms of channel partly based on age and partly on hydrology. Prior streams are the oldest, with more water flow and consequently more sand and gravel load. They appear as winding dunes with an associated depression marking the channel. Prior streams are straighter than later channels, which formed with slower waterflow rates. Archaeological deposits may be found in and on them, but the channels had long since stopped running before Australia was colonised at about 40,000 years ago. Burials are common on these along with some hearth and shell middens.

Ancestral rivers formed later, with larger channels and meanders than modern ones. While sand deposits were actually deposited by prior streams, ancestral rivers are characterised by sands blown up to the leeward by wind. Billabongs and meander scrolls are characteristic remnants of ancestral rivers. These rivers probably ceased after about 15,000 years ago, although they would still carry water occasionally. All kinds of archaeological deposit are found here, where sand was continuously covering artefacts and hearths. The dunes generally have a loamy soil down to 60 cm and most artefacts and burials occur in this level.

Modern rivers are "highly sinuous", or winding with deeply cut channels. Archaeological deposits on these features are generally less than 10,000 to 6,000 years old. Occupation of these is more widespread, partly because natural processes have not had the greater length of time to erode the sites. Many shell middens and artefact scatters attest tot he rivers as foci of occupation by Aborigines in this area.

Lakes

Lakes are common in the Shire. These ephemeral basins were probably local hollows associated with older channels, where evaporation and wave action in turn deepened the basins and created large crescentic dunes on the leeward half of the lakes. These "lunettes" are composed of clay pellets of soil stability. It is these lunettes which have provided some of the best records of human habitation and burial in the continent. Artefact density is greater than most other site forms, although this might be considered sparse by comparison to rock shelters, for instance. Since habitation would have normally been at times wit water in the lakes, it is not surprising that large quantities of fish bones (mostly perch and cod) and mussel shell are found. Along with theses are hearths of many types, as described later in this report.

The best known remains from lunette are the people themselves. The cremation and burial at Mungo from over 25,000 years ago are the first instances of a more or less continuous record of burial practises up to present times.

Below the human evidence of occupation we find many examples of extinct mammals and birds; the megafauna, or large marsupials that died out before 20,000 years ago (although some archaeologists consider they may have died out earlier).

DOCUMENTATION OF SITES IN THE SHIRE BY REGION

River Murray

River channel and floodplain

The extent of alluvial plains in Wentworth Shire is less than 2,000 square kilometres. These are characterised by grey cracking and self mulching clays with associated billabongs, swamps, levees and source bordering dunes. Sand deposits are distributed primarily on the eastern sides of channels and vary from well sorted river sands to sandy loams.

Sites on the grey clays are less common than on the sand bodies, which are often above flood levels. Recent shell middens (less than 2,000 years) are abundant, while stone artefacts and hearths are relatively rare. Few burials are know from the grey clay deposits, although this is in part due to the lack of excavation or erosion. Although it would be unlikely to find large sites or burials on the floodplain clays, the possibility is there (site 46-3-4-, Boeill Creek is one such case).

The sand bodies are another story altogether. Archaeological remains are common and dense on levees, point bars, source bordering dunes and prior stream dues. Artefacts and burials are most often seen in the upper parts of the dunes, characterised by brown to red loamy sands. Dates for these may be in excess of 6,000 years. Any digging into these bodies is likely to disturb archaeological sites and burials.

Lakes associated with the River Murray

There are four main lakes along the southern boundary of the Shire. These are Lake Victoria, Fletcher's and Gol Gol Lakes and the Gol Gol Swamp. They are characteristic of ephemeral lakes; shallow, clay beds, lunettes and surrounding box and gum forest. Each of these has among the densest archaeological deposits in the Shire, along with their outlet creeks.

Cemeteries are known to exist at Lake Victoria and Rufus River, Tucker's Creek (46-2-3) near the Fletcher's Lake outlet, at Snaggy Bend (46-2-1) near Wentworth and possibly on the western shore of Fletcher's Lake (46-3-9, 11, 12, 13). The cemeteries at Lake Victoria were dug by G Murray Black in the 30's and 40's. Their locations are being rediscovered with current fieldwork by the consultant and Allan Lance. These are of the highest significance to Aboriginal people and by themselves are good reason for avoiding disturbance. All lakeside lunettes will contain burials in large numbers, as will outlet creeks (see table 2).

Other features of lakes have been mentioned briefly above. The majority of sites in the National Parks and Wildlife Service register come from lake complexes: Lake Victoria (56 sites), lower Anabranch lakes (70) and Willandra lakes (88). Most of these are open campsites, local concentrations of artefacts followed by sell middens and burials. Middens become more common on the creeks, such as a Rufus River.

Darling River

Approximately 1,200 square kilometres of river floodplain, both darling and its Anabranch, are sited in the Shire. This land is much like that described for the River Murray floodplain. The rivers are slow, meandering courses with many lakes attached to the Anabranch. This is the older of the two courses, and dates from Tandou lake are among the oldest in the country at 36,000 years. The Darling channel is younger, with a probable age of about 6,000 years. Thus, the archaeology of these two channels records different time periods (although Aborigines were of course living on the Anabranch in the last 6,000 years).

The sorts of sites to be expected on the Murray are roughly the same suite to be seen on the Darling and Anabranch. The Darling does not have as wide a floodplain in many areas as the Murray or Anabranch. Many of the sites on the National Parks and Wildlife Service register are open camp sites. These records are mainly the result of contract surveys and are associated with lakes, swamps and creeks. Two stone arrangements are on the Anabranch Lakes system.

Willandra Creek and Lakes

Just as the Darling Anabranch is the ancestral channel of the Darling, Willandra Creek is the river ancestral to the Lachlan. This area is on the World Heritage listing and part is a National Park. Management of this area is vested in those two authorities.

Aeolian Sand Plain

While sites on the dunefields are generally thought to be of low archaeological and individual significance, very little work has been carried out in these areas. Most of this has been surveys in advance of seismic or transmission lines. These have documented mainly stone artefacts.

An area with almost no previous study is north of Lake Victoria and west of the Darling Anabranch. There are numerous saline ground water discharge basins with lunette development and kopi sources. This is the land to which "Nanya" fled last century. Sarah Martin, an archaeologist living in Broken Hill, is about to start a major project in the land from the Anabranch west. Her results will be of interest to the Shire.

DOCUMENTATION OF THE ARCHAEOLOGY BY SITE TYPE

Burials

Burials are found all over the western region of New South Wales. Aboriginal people did not only bury the dead; there are instances of cremation and of secondary burial as well. This is were the body is interred for a short period of time and then exhumed. The bones are then taken back to some other spot of religious significance. A secondary burial is identifiable in the field by the arrangement of the bones, that is to say they are usually in a bundle rather than in anatomical position.

Burials are usually associated with sand deposits and with water. Although skeletons may be found in the dune fields or on the edges of scalds, these are comparatively rare. A few burials were dug into the grey clays of the river. Normally these only come into view in an area of active erosion, since these are areas of soil deposition.

The cliffed margin of the River Murray has many burials along it, especially in the eastern part of the Shire. Since this area is already under great threat from erosion, many burials are exposed.

Cemeteries

Headstones and fences do not adorn these ancient cemeteries. Often the only indications are the bones themselves. They are invariably located on sand bodies near the river Murray; usually discrete source bordering dunes, although some are found on lunettes of lakes. The four features used to define them are numbers, density, boundedness and exclusivity of use. There are upwards of 100 individuals found in a small area with a density of greater than 100 individuals found in a small area with a density of greater than one grave per 10 square meters. Few graves occur outside the main boundary. Occupation debris, such as campfires and stone tools are rare inside the bounds of the graveyard, but may be found nearby.

Known cemeteries in Wentworth Shire are Snaggy Bend, Tucker's Creek, a number at lake Victoria and Rufus River. The latter does not include the Rufus River massacre site. These cemeteries generally date back many thousands of years.

Preservation and restoration of Snaggy Bend and Tucker's Creek have been a high priority with the Aboriginal community and National Parks and Wildlife Service for a number of years.

Quarries

Stone was the main durable source for cutting and grinding tools in the past. The other source of these sorts of tools was river mussel shells. Quarries are very rare on the flood plains, occurring only as localised outcrops of variable quality silcrete (a silicified sandstone).

Lake Mungo one of the most important of these quarries is the site on the western shore of Lake Mungo, not far from the homestead. This is one of the main reasons for the intensive occupation of Mungo, quite apart from the lake environment.

Lake Victoria this source is described by Allan Lance in the Lake Victoria Plan of management. It is back from the wide, highly eroded eastern lunette.

Devil's elbow west of Lake Victoria on the bank of the river Murray, this site produces small nodules of a very glassy chart.

Stone Artefacts

Grinding slabs and stones were an important part of the technology of the people in the western region. They formed the basis, undoubtedly with woven baskets, for the collection and processing of wild grains. Most homesteads, museums and private homes have collections of these labs, which are often very large (up to 800 by 400 mm).

Interestingly, no suitable sandstone sources occur in the shire. All these grinding slabs were traded in room as far afield as Mootawingee, north-west of Broken Hill.

Flaked stone to make points and knives is comparatively rare on the Murray and lower Darling. Most stone must be brought in, and was consequently heavily used, resulting in smaller tools. Otherwise, stone was replaced by shell for many purposes.

Ground stone axes formed an integral part of the tool kit. These were hafted and formed the heavy duty and durable chopping implement for chopping bark, making footholds into trees and the like. These are rarely found now since most were collected from the surface over the years. Axes were traded in from far afield, notably from the greenstone quarries of Victoria.

Shell Middens

Everyone has seen scatters and small thick layers of shell near rivers, lakes and lagoons. These are often associated with hearths. Larger middens may cover a large area and include other food remains such as yabbies, fish and bird bones. They may be 100 or 150 mm thick and very extensive. Other smaller scatters probably represent dinnertime camps for one or a few people. They are spread out over the sand plain back from their collection source, such as a lake, and decrease in frequency with distance, as common sense dictates.

Since shell middens are so common, their archaeological importance lies partly in their distribution rather than their contents. This must be qualified for the larger middens which signify areas of long and relatively dense occupation. It is likely that these sites would be of greater archaeological significance.

Shell is also the preferred material for use in radiocarbon dating (a method of finding the age of organic materials from the decay of radioactive carbon atoms). The sequence of occupation for the Darling River has been made from mussel shell.

There are specific shell middens known of in the Wentworth - Dareton region which are known by Aboriginal people and who see these as historical monuments. One of these lies beside (and under) the Sturt Highway, just west of Dareton at the Department of Agriculture research station. This is a large midden which covers one half hectare or so on the cliff above the river flood plain. The sell were collected from Tucker's Creek, directly below. The shells are large and thick and are covered by a thin layer of carbonate, or limestone that has been deposited on them in the ground. Tucker's Creek has long since ceased to be an active channel, and this suggests that this particular midden is in the vicinity of 12,000 to 13,000 yeas old.

Another midden on the River Murray south and east of the Pumping Station at Dareton represents another time phase in history and different ways of making a living. Here the shells are of various sizes (from 400 to 1,200 mm) but mainly smaller and thinner than at the research Station midden. They are more recent as well. What is interesting about a comparison of these two middens is that the older one was probably the result of hand picking the mussels, while the later one on the Murray was likely the result of using nets to drag the riverbed and consequently, all sizes of mussel were collected.

Habitation Mounds

Low mounds of grey to black, ashy soils are common in the eastern riverine plain, but are relatively rare in Wentworth Shire. The mounds are visible as low, bounded areas with soil distinctively darker than the surrounding soils. They are surface features and are built up not from wind action but from occupational refuse over a long period of time. These mounds are later in time, seeming to occur only in the last couple of thousand years. They are rich in organic refuse; bone, some shell and stone, charcoal and ash.

One mound at the outlet regulator of Lake Victoria is under considerable threat from the impromptu parking lot/picnic area.

Hearths

Hearths may vary from a grey stain or smear on the surface to large mounds of burned clay. Hearth stones were, and are, used to cook food in a slow, moist fashion. A pit with a fire would have small clay lumps, broken up ant nest caps or stones put in to heat. The fire would be scooped out and lined with moist grasses and then the food would be put in with the stones going back on top. The whole oven would be covered with the same result as a pit barbeque, a hungi or even a Weber. These stones would be reused, so that a spot might be revisited many times. The distribution and density of hearths correlates closely with available food resources. For instance, the Research Station midden has many hearths throughout it, while in the sand plains they are less common.

Campsites

An "open campsite" is a term used for a concentration of stone flakes and/or hearths. Imagine that, over great stretches of time, people would camp on their seasonal round, going from water hole to a grass stand for the harvesting of grass seed to a stand of trees for a quandong harvest to a stand of mallee for spears and so on. At each of these stops which would be in different places over the millenia, there would be a fire, perhaps some maintenance of stone tools resulting in flaking debris, the loss or discarding of tools, some bones from the days hunt might be thrown into the fire. The present day distribution of these would look like a more or less continuous distribution of archaeological remains over the landscape.

Campsites are common and may usually be found in areas of erosion, such as scalds where the artefacts are to be seen eroding from the edges and lying on the surface.

Fish traps

As stated previously, stone is rare in the study area and occurs in stony rises along the rivers and as outcrops throughout the sand plains. Where rises along the rivers and as outcrops throughout the sand plains. Where it does surface on the river channels, it may be used as a source material for constructing fish traps. One of these lies on the western floor of Nearie Lake, on the lower Anabranch. It is simply a series of lines of small stones placed near the outlet creek that connects the lake to the Anabranch. The purpose behind this is to either direct water flow or to create small ponds in which to trap fish.

Similar formations might be expected to exist on most outlet creeks or lakes in the region, although they might have been made of wood rather than stone. Historical observations show that Aborigines managed fish resources by taking advantage of the seasonal variation in water flow to construct traps, dams and weirs. The importance of such sites and the spots they might exist lies in their uniqueness. Billabongs, lagoons, outlet creeks and swamps might all be expected to have been used for these purposes. The fish trap at Nearie Lake is probably one of the few visible examples of this. It is well protected since it is in a Nature reserve.

Scarred Trees

Red gums, box and Murray Pines can all have sections of bark cut out. These were used for canoes, coolamons, torches, shields and other tools. Most stands of river forest will have scarred trees, often in great abundance.

Specific Artefacts

Kopi mourning caps
As mentioned in the introductory section, are of relatively restricted distribution, centred on the lower Darling and central Murray. They were part of funeral sites well into historic times but with an unknown time depth.

Mourning caps are sometimes visible on the surface, denoting a burial in the immediate area that has eroded out. They are rarely complete and may look like a small piece of white clay.

Cylcons
These artefacts are stone, or more rarely kopi or clay. The are generally referred to as "phallic" and "initiation" stones. They are generally less than 30 cm long. Their name comes from a discrete description of their shape: cylindro-conical. Cylcons are found in graves and by themselves over much of the Darling River region. Many are in the local station collections and have no archaeological provenance. They may be expected to be found only rarely.

Megafauna Fossils

Strictly speaking, these remains of extinct giant marsupials do not form part of the archaeological record. People co-existed with these animals as part of the wider environment for many thousands of years, until the megafauna died out. This happened some time between thirty and fifteen thousand years ago. No megafauna remains have been found in direct association with human occupation deposits (such as burned bones in a fireplace, or a stone point in a rib) but there is some speculation that hunting by the newly arrived Australians over some twenty thousand years contributed to their demise.

Remains of these giant marsupials do occur in some of the older soil deposits of lake shore lunettes and are of importance to the wider natural history of the region and of Australia. These sites are outside the brief, but a partial listing from various research sources may be interesting.

Nialia Lake Protemnodon some bones collected by Dr J Hope, ANU
Lake Victoria Various species
Lake Poplitah Diprotodon

Procoptodon

Perry Sand Hills Diprotodon recorded by Peter Clarke of WLC

Genyornis

SUMMARY

The landforms of greater archaeological value are lakes, outlet creeks, sand dunes associated with river channels and cliffed river margins. In effect, the closer to the water, the more likely it is that archaeological sites will be found and in greater numbers.

Sites registered with National Parks and Wildlife Service reflect particular research of various people and except in the broadest terms, are not representative of sites on the ground. The register does highlight the number and diversity of sites on the lakes and outlet creeks, but not along this stretch of the Murray. Two new sites were recorded in the field, both near Dareton. These shell middens fit in with general predictions of site distribution and density.

RESPONSIBLE ORGANISATIONS

There are two organisations which are responsible for the protection of archaeological sites in western New South Wales, National Parks & Wildlife Service and Western Lands Commission. These people assess archaeological and management reports.

Mr Harvey Johnston Mr Karl Williams
Regional Archaeologist Sites Officer

National Parks and Wildlife Service
PO Box 318
Buronga NSW 2648

Mr Dan Witter Mr Badger Bates
Regional Archaeologist Sites Officer

National Parks and Wildlife Service
PO Box 459
Broken Hill NSW 2880

Mr Peter Clark
Archaeologist
Western Lands Commission
Buronga NSW 2648

The above representatives can be called upon, not to do archaeological surveys, but to aid in the management of sites and in assessing the impact of development.

Furthermore, it is important to realise that Aborigines will be consulted over proposed development that may endanger archaeological and historic relics and sites as explicit policy of National Parks and Wildlife Service. Local offices of the New South Wales Aboriginal Land Councils are:

Western Regional Aboriginal Land Council (080) 32 33
PO Box 494 Mr Bill Cunningham, Chairman
Broken Hill NSW 2880

Dareton Local Aboriginal Land Council (03) 5027 4336 or (03) 5027 4429

Ms Jenny Moore, Secretary

CONSULTATION WITH ABORIGINAL PEOPLE

The consultant travelled to Wentworth Shire between January 30 and February 5, 1989. The aim was not to do any archaeological fieldwork, since the brief called for an overview of the region, rather than a specific and detailed survey. Rather, the consultant wished to discuss Heritage Study with the Aboriginal community and to find any particular information about sites or burials that might not be known.

An initial meeting was held with Rod Smith and Hector Bates at the Dareton Local Aboriginal Land Council office, providing them with copies of the Heritage Study proposal as well as the introductory chapter on the prehistory. Over the next couple of days (February 1-2) the consultant travelled with Rod and Dawn Smith around Dareton and Wentworth to examine sites that were of importance to the community. These are discussed in the documentation and management sections.

On February 3, 1989, a meeting was held with Mrs Rene Mitchell and Johns and Julie Mitchell. Mrs Mitchell is an older member of the community, while John and Julie are active with the church and community.

Generally, people appreciate the need for development in the region, but hope that it can be pursued with prior consultation so that important sites can be preserved and access to them safeguarded.

SITES ON THE NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SERVICE (NSW) REGISTER

(Wentworth Shire, Maps 31, 32, 39, 40, 46, 47: 32.7-34.6, 141-143.6)

Date Last Updated: 20 September 1988

ABORIGINAL SITES IN THE WENTWORTH SHIRE RECORDED ON THE NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDLIFE SERVICE (NSW) REGISTER

(FEBRUARY 1989)

KNOWN AND PREDICATED ABORIGINAL SITES IN PROPOSED DEVELOPMENT AREAS OF THE WENTWORTH SHIRE